Pipelines Expansion Loops
A pipeline will
expand or contract when temperature and pressure vary from installation
conditions. Conditions during construction, therefore, become the reference
temperature and pressure. For present purposes, discussion will be limited to
expansion, but similar issues may require addressing for contraction.
As
the pipeline expands, it will follow the path of least resistance, which leads
directly to the risers to the platform.
If
the lower riser span is insufficiently flexible to absorb expansion within the
permissible stress limit, expansion loops are typically placed just before each
riser. When the loops do not function properly, as when buried, they overstress
at the first bend experiencing the pipeline expansion.
The
several methods readily available to reduce the expansion in the pipeline
result in build-up of axial forces in the pipeline and lead to upheaval
buckling, a mode of failure in trenched and buried pipelines. Pipelines resting
on the seabed may also buckle but tend to buckle laterally where there is
insignificant resistance.
Upheaval
buckling results from the axial force generated from the expanding pipeline
combined with an uneven trench bottom which results from the trenching process,
undulations in the seabed, a rock formation, or an area of denser soil. Trench
unevenness is generally referred to as an "imperfection."
Axial
force and imperfection are related. In general terms, the more uneven the
trench profile, the lower the axial force required to produce an upheaval
buckle.
Methods
to control expansion and upheaval buckling, discussed presently, were
investigated for the design of a high pressure and temperature, buried sour gas
flow line offshore in Mobile Bay, Ala., for a major operator.
Controlling expansion
There are several
conventional methods used to handle expansion which, along with some
unconventional methods, were investigated and include the following:
- Anchor flanges and concrete
and/or rough fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) coatings each performs the same
function of increasing the friction, thus reducing or eliminating
expansion in the pipeline. This increase in friction, however, results in
the build-up of axial forces in the pipeline contributing to increased
risk of upheaval buckling.
- Cold springing the riser has
proven successful for many pipelines. Cold springing prestresses the riser
during construction, resulting in splitting the difference between the
prestress and the expansion loads to be encountered during operation. This
allows the riser to accommodate larger amounts of expansion. Cold
springing allows for the natural relief of the pipeline stresses through
the riser. Even allowing for cold springing, the middle of the pipeline
may be anchored because of friction and experience the maximum axial force
possibly resulting in upheaval buckling.
- The riser bend may be
reinforced with a brace, distributing the forces over more of the riser.
Reinforcing is limited in the amount of expansion it may accommodate,
however, and does not alleviate the forces in the middle of the pipeline.
- Pipe-in-pipe construction is an
option that has been utilized when other solutions fail. It is costly
because the product carrier pipe is inside a jacket pipe normally two
sizes larger. The two pipes are mechanically connected with bulkheads that
transfer the loads from the carrier pipe to the jacket pipe.
While the carrier pipe expands, the
jacket pipe resists the expansion loads. The spacing and size of the bulkheads
are determined to eliminate buckling of the carrier pipe within the jacket pipe
to minimize installation expense.
The structural design of the
pipe-in-pipe virtually eliminates expansion and the potential of upheaval
buckling if the system is properly designed. The cost of extra materials,
however, and the lengthy process of fabricating the pipe-in-pipe warrant
investigation of other options.
- Expansion loops and doglegs
serve the purpose of acting as a spring to accommodate expansion at the
risers. Several expansion loop and dogleg configurations were investigated
for the installation in Mobile Bay, including conventional U-loops of
various dimensions, and various angles for the doglegs.
It was found that buried expansion
loops and doglegs experience high lateral resistance that in turn creates
localized high stresses at the first bend. Only a short length of the expansion
loop was buried, with minimal effectiveness.
To illustrate the relative
effectiveness, it was found that a conventional expansion loop 40 x 40 ft was
effective only over 4 ft when buried and had a much-reduced capacity for
expansion. Similar to other methods, the expansion loop placed at the riser
would not relieve the stresses in the middle of the pipeline.
- A zig-zag shaped pipeline has
been employed to accommodate expansion and relieve axial forces throughout
the pipeline. The pipe joints were
bent in a zig-zag configuration and double jointed for installation. Each
joint accommodated some of the expansion and relieved some of the axial
force.
Although this solution has
applications, the additional cost and concerns of fabrication and installation
limit its applicability.
- Snaking the pipeline during
installation appeared promising in principal. The pipeline would act as
its own spring throughout the length, accommodating the expansion and
alleviating the axial forces.
Several
configurations that were considered easily layable were investigated for a
range of soil conditions. It was determined that the pipeline follows the path
of least resistance, which is axially.
Snaking
the pipeline requires additional pipe which contributes to more costs and more
expansion at the ends.
source :
http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/volume-96/issue-31/in-this-issue/pipeline/expansion-loop-enclosure-resolves-subsea-line-problems.html